Organizational Management Essay Example

Hierarchical Management Essay 1. Center premises of old style and neoclassical hypotheses of hierarchical administration There are a few center premises each for both the old style and neoclassical points of view of authoritative administration †with similitudes and contrasts between the two ways of thinking. The old style point of view is portrayed by its key suppositions that an) Organizations’ reason for existing is to accomplish yield related and monetary objectives, b) The logical technique is the way to finding the best authoritative structure for the previously mentioned objectives, c) Job specialization and division of work amplify creation, and d) Rational financial standards direct how individuals and associations act (Jang, Ott, Shafritz 2005:28). The quintessential traditional scholars incorporate Max Weber, Henri Fayol, Fredrick Taylor, and Luther Gulick. Weber portrayed administration as the perfect hierarchical structure for objectivity and proficiency with the attributes of obviously characterized rules, generic quality, chain of command/levels of power, and preparing of representatives (Jang, Ott, Shafritz 2005:73-74). Fayol enunciated general standards of the board †attributes under which the perfect association works which incorporate division of work, authority and duty, discipline, solidarity of order, solidarity of course, subjection of individual enthusiasm to general intrigue, and compensation of staff (Jang, Ott, Shafritz 2005:48-52). We will compose a custom exposition test on Organizational Management explicitly for you for just $16.38 $13.9/page Request now We will compose a custom article test on Organizational Management explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer We will compose a custom article test on Organizational Management explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer Taylor (1915) supported what he called â€Å"scientific management†, a way of thinking where the logical strategy applies to the administration of an association and the laborers in that to build efficiency. So careful was Taylor in his idea of applying logical proof to plant employments, that he directed â€Å"time studies† in which a stopwatch was utilized to time a worker’s movements †the thought being there is one best strategy for playing out any physical undertaking. NetMBA 2002-2010) Perhaps less profoundly, Taylor additionally upheld for cautious determination and preparing of laborers by the board, just as the natural old style guideline of partitioning work as per specialization. Gulick (1937) considered the benefits of building an association starting from the top and the base up; and contributed his concept of sorting out the official as indicated by his abbreviation â€Å"POSDCORB†: Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting, and Budgeting (Jang, Ott, Shafritz 2005:86). Gulick portrayed the elements of this abbreviation as in a perfect world being partitioning among the official †wherein the official isn't only the CEO, however different workplaces and divisions including the boss executive’s private secretary (Jang, Ott, Shafritz 2005:86). The neoclassical hypothesis of hierarchical administration acknowledges the fundamental precepts of old style hypothesis yet adds a few focuses to challenge and develop it. These focuses are a) The human factor in associations: How individuals in the association will help out one another in an association and the amount they will be focused on hierarchical qualities and objectives †especially in the unthinking, bureaucratic authoritative model Weber built, b) The significance of inside outside hierarchical relations, and c) Decision-production forms (Jang, Ott, Shafritz 2005:88). The human factor in associations was investigated by Barnard (1938), who underscored the significance of inspiring specialists appropriately to work inside an agreeable hierarchical framework. Barnard verbalized a strategy for impetuses that gave more thought to inspiring components, for example, open door for force, position, and distinction, gainful social connections at work, more noteworthy interest in dynamic, than to money related pay. Hidden suspicions about human instinct of old style and neoclassical hypothesis The traditional school accept that associations are essentially worried about substantial, monetary prizes (benefits), and that associations ought to be developed by the general as well as logical administration standards plot prior so as to amplify hierarchical profitability and effectiveness. Individuals are persuaded fundamentally by cash; other spurring components, for example, feeling of achievement and associations with colleagues are moderately irrelevant. Old style hypothesis expect that each piece of an association (administration/the executives and laborers) must have unmistakably characterized jobs that must be clung to, and participation between every one of these sections is significant in ensuring the authoritative objectives are being reached. Neoclassical hypothesis concurs with old style hypothesis insofar that conomic/budgetary prizes are to be sure a major inspiration for associations, their pioneers, and their creation laborers †however uncovered the traditional theorists’ clarification (or scarcity in that department) of the significance of human relations and gathering elements in the hierarchical setting. Neoclassical hypothesis considers to a degree the impacts of association on people †especially specialist participation and inspira tion, just as coordination among pioneers and managerial units. One such neoclassical scholar, Robert Merton (1957, 1985), contended that organizations repress singular opportunity and innovativeness and refers to Thorstein Veblen’s thought of â€Å"trained incapacity†, John Dewey’s thought of â€Å"occupational psychosis†, and Daniel Warnotte’s hypothesis of â€Å"professional deformation† to show his point (Jang, Ott, Shafritz 2005:104). Another purpose of contradiction among old style and neoclassical scholars originates from the idea of rules and techniques in associations. This apparent extreme matchless quality of formal guidelines and systems was tested by Merton, who contended that conventional standards and techniques lead to overconformity: Formalism, even ceremony, follows with an unchallenged emphasis on exacting adherence to formalized methodology. This might be misrepresented to where essential worry with adjustment to the standards meddles with the accomplishment of the motivations behind the association An outrageous result of this procedure of uprooting of objectives is the bureaucratic virtuoso, who always remembers a solitary guideline restricting his activity and subsequently can't help a considerable lot of his customers. Merton through Jang, Ott, Shafritz 2005:106) Thus, neoclassical hypothesis offers assurance to human flexibility as per circumstance, notice that rules and techniques regularly prohibit individuals in hierarchical settings from practicing their best judgment. To fortify this point, this is as a distinct difference to t he traditional view that rules, methodology, and jobs in an association as indicated by work specialization direct, or if nothing else continually manage, the practices and cooperations of individuals in the association. Fundamentally, neoclassical hypothesis places more confidence in singular judgment and carefulness than does old style hypothesis, while putting less accentuation on the significance of sane objectives like cash to associations and esteeming more worth arranged authoritative objectives and activities. Similar remains constant for individuals: Classical hypothesis suggests that individuals are extremely just in it for the cash while neoclassical hypothesis says cash is only one spurring factor †there are additionally impetuses, for example, pride, social connections at work, and increased obligation and dynamic force that are incredible helpers for working individuals. Precision of presumptions and ampleness in clarifying contemporary hierarchical elements and successful administration Both the traditional hypothesis and neoclassical hypothesis are satisfactory in certain regards while deficient in others, and a portion of each is both mutual and elite between the two particular perspectives. The old style standards of division of work and specialization of work as intends to expand profitability and effectiveness were creative at that point and still to a great extent remain constant today. Numerous organizations today isolate their workforce by expertise/capability into various jobs/offices inside the organization. For instance, about each vehicle fabricating organization today utilizes the mechanical production system fabricating framework, in which get together laborers each have an errand or a particular arrangement of undertakings, and they are (both the laborers and their assignments) are consecutively requested. On account of the average car sequential construction system, the frame is made first, at that point the body is added to the skeleton, and afterward the inside is characterized with seating, hardware, and so forth. Clearly, these are wide advances that contain littler errands inside, and processing plant hardware helps proficiency a lot (particularly given how much innovation has progressed over the previous century), however partition of work is as yet fit as a fiddle today. Taylor’s hypothesis of logical administration was exceptionally compelling time permitting and still is today. In Taylor’s time, Henry Ford received logical administration as depicted by Taylor in his production lines (the sequential construction system being the most remarkable indication of Taylor’s standards in real life), and even families began to do their family errands dependent on the consequences of time and movement contemplates (NetMBA. com 2002-2010). Taylor’s standards can be found in real life today, especially in the cheap food administration industry where accomplishing productivity is imperative to meet client desires. A glaring deficiency of old style hypothesis, for this situation Taylor’s logical administration, is that it regards laborers as instruments rather than people. As expressed previously, there is a

Medical Ethics Essays - Science, Knowledge, Philosophy, Free Essays

Clinical Ethics Essays - Science, Knowledge, Philosophy, Free Essays Clinical Ethics Clinical Ethics ? Bioethics contain each conceivable part of human services, clinical, good, social, political, strict, legitimate and monetary? (Weiss 3). This incorporates the inquiries raised by new research. It investigates the consequences of that exploration that is utilized on patients. It contemplates contemporary thoughts of individual flexibility and human pride. It manages development in clinical administrations accessible in the United States and the soaring expense. Bioethics likewise manages the clinical advances in innovation that has reshaped customary clinical morals. Clinical morals have changed definitely over a time of years. From old instructions to new rules, rules that give basic system, great analyses that challenge that structure, or even how things are characterized in clinical morals. ?Clinical advancement goes on, and the hazards of progress must be paid attention to? (Leone 165). Changing occasions have thusly changed our codes of morals. There are five o ld instructions of morals and five new rules of morals. These edicts originate from numerous long periods of intensely exhorted directs from different individuals. A rule by definition is, ? ... a direct or an unequivocally educated piece concerning exhortation? (Halsey 201). The principal customary edict is, ? Treat all human life as of equivalent worth? (Vocalist 190). This announcement is extremely hard to follow; basically no individual accepts this announcement entire heartedly. The announcement bodes well on paper or simply being heard, however its application in life is practically difficult to guarantee. In contrast with the main old ethic, the principal new ethic states, ?Recognize that the value of human life differs? (Vocalist 190). This announcement takes into account variety and bearableness in the public arena. It gives path for somebody to state, if an individual is a vegetable, has no imperative abilities, this person?s life is of no value any longer. Without this ki nd of progress in today?s propelling human advancement, it would make it morally wrong to ?reassess? (Rothstein 1698.) The following instruction of old morals is, ? Never deliberately take honest human life? (Vocalist 192). On the off chance that a specialist or any human services proficient just remained by during the introduction of a youngster and both the kid and the mother were biting the dust, how could that specialist remain there and watch both the mother and the baby bite the dust without making some strategy for move. In any case, if that doctor were to spare either persistent while relinquishing the life of the other, that human services proficient would be viewed as unscrupulous and disdained by the standard of this moral precept. In examination, the new charge states, ?Take obligation regarding the outcomes of your decisions?(Singer 195). By the token of this affirmation a doctor can settle on a decision dependent on his/her best judgment, yet; be considered responsible for their activities. This enables a specialist to utilize his/her best judgment and educated abilities, to do what they accept is best for the patient. This announcement takes into account a person?s option to unrestrained choice, even an individual who is a Christian may all the more completely concur with this announcement only for the unadulterated explanation that they need to accept more in God?s guarantee of through and through freedom in their life. Decree number four states,? Be productive and increase? (Vocalist 198). This scriptural directive has been a piece of Christian morals for a great many years. ? Augustine said that sex without reproduction ' transforms the wedding chamber into a house of ill-repute (Singer 198). A few laws in America concerning contraceptives made due until the mid-1960?s when the Supreme Court proclaimed them intrusion of protection (Madsen 325). The overhauled instruction number four, ?Bring kids into the world in particular on the off chance that they are needed? (Artist 199), considers populace control just as avoidance of youngsters who were rarely needed and not adored. From 1930 when the populace was two billion to today where the populace is more than five billion and is relied upon to transcend eleven billion by the center of the following century. With these sorts of insights modified directs, for example, this fourth one, are basic. The last of these five old charges state, ? Treat all human life as in every case more valuable than any non-human life? (Artist 201). On the off chance that we contrast a seriously blemished human newborn child and a

Libor Scandal 2014

Question: Consider the libor embarrassment 2014 which numerous banks of the uk banks were associated with .investigate the reasons for this outrage and assess the effect? Answer: Presentation: Libor represents the London Interbank Offered Rate. It is the rate at which banks can acquire assets from one another. Beforehand it was known as BBA Libor (for British Bankers Association). Libor is commonly characterized as a benchmark loan cost through which banks can loan unbound assets to one another. This rate is likewise distributed by the British Bankers Association. Libor is determined against ten unique monetary standards and fifteen distinct developments that is the reason Libor is considered as a worldwide benchmark to loan momentary financing costs. Eighteen banks took an interest for the US Dollar Libor. The Libor rate being a worldwide benchmark, it is utilized for giving home loans, credits and other budgetary items exchanged far and wide. In this way an endeavor was made to make the present market for work rate. That prompted increment in the benefits and it made a bit of leeway over others. The work Scandal emerged with the way that banks began getting mindful about loaning advances to each other and this reason prompted expanding Libor rate. The higher the rate that they were charged to obtain, the almost certain a bank was to fall. Libor rate influenced the worldwide obtaining on the grounds that numerous banks utilized Libor as a base rate against financing costs on corporate and purchaser credits. As indicated by US Commodities Future Trading Commission, many trillions of dollars were connected to Libor which included auto and home advances. It was additionally imperative to take note of that banks engaged with protections business were bound to come up short. From realities it was seen that 5000 banks flopped in the 1920s.During the Great Depression over 25% banks fizzled and even some were shut down. Banks associated with the LIBOR Scandal: The American banks those were incorporated as the board for fixing US dollars was The Bank of America, JP Morgan Chase and Citibank, NA. Aside from this 16 other non-US banks were associated with the US dollar fixing in London. These banks are: HSBC, Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi UFJ Ltd, and of Nova Scotia, BNP Paribas, Barclays, Deutsche Bank, Credit Agricole CIB, Credit Suisse, Rabobank, Royal bank of Canada, Lloyds TSB Bank plc, UBS AG, The Royal bank of Scotland gathering, The Norinchukin Bank, Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation (Hou, 2015). Reasons for Libor Scandal: The LIBOR Scandal was gotten by the GFC so that Barclays could keep up its financial soundness in the market. It was additionally discovered that the control was not simply limited to the directors and merchants in Barclays, yet in addition took into account different banks in US too throughout the years. The LIBOR outrage was brought about by the controllers and rebel representatives who even represent a stop to the legislature too. This embarrassment was considered as a type of value fixing. The response to the reason for this issue was suspecticious in light of the nearness of ideological groups and issues. There were no standard working techniques and they didn't submit to the law (https://www.clpuk.co.uk, 2015). Discussion of the Libor Scandal: There was a discussion with this embarrassment that controls was finished by Barclays in the cost entries that lead to cutting back of their budgetary wellbeing and along these lines they couldn't make any benefit out of it. It was additionally brought up that dealers were set in the middle of with direct correspondence and this made the brokers to be influenced. This carried a knowledge by the brokers to set the work rates according to comfort (Claudio, 2014). Effect of the Libor Scandal: LIBOR had following effect on the financings in the US. Libor chooses the pace of premium that can be balanced alongside private home loans utilized, for example, guarantee for subsidiary protections which are sold both in the private and open commercial centers. It likewise sets the pace of enthusiasm for the following time frame by which drifting bonds can be sold inside or outside US. The exceptional bonds are fundamentally to be recovered as and when the worldwide financings are given. All the procedures of the bonds are coordinated of the guarantor in Guaranteed Investment Contracts (GICs). This was a piece of the speculation offered by budgetary assistance organizations. There were two principle types of control that were found. Right off the bat merchants were recognized to ask Barclays workers to change their rates. Furthermore activities were taken to improve the financial wellbeing controlling the rates descending. It was anticipated that the new rate estimation will be founded on expanding paces of loan fee in the market. It was likewise proposed to make the rates straightforward in the market for global use (LBC, 2015). Punishments for the Libor Scandal: Certain measure of fine was forced against control of the Libor rates. Barclays Bank was fined $200 million by the Commodity Futures exchanging Commission, the United States Department of Justice fined $160 million and 59.5 Euros by the Financial Services Authority. During the worldwide budgetary emergency of 2007-2012, the loan fees were made lower (When the Bollinger financiers' air pockets burst, 2013). Guideline and Sanctions made by the administration on Libor Scandal: There was a need of work rate control that was accounted for by the Wall Street Journal in 2011. It was essential for the legislature to roll out fundamental improvements in type of corrections to the Parliament or Banking Reform Bill. The administration needed to control the validity of LIBOR by formally supplanting British Banking Association as operational chairman and this additionally reestablish the notoriety of LIBOR in advertise (Horton, 2012). Procedure and motivation behind how banks set their LIBOR rates: The way toward fixing or setting the LIBOR rates is straightforward and basic as indicated by the BBA LIBOR 2013. Certain inquiries were brought up in the market as indicated by which the business was to be directed. It was additionally important to indicate the rate at which assets could be obtained which is before the market size also. All the commitment from the banks included are considered for creating the last Libor rate in the market inside every money. These last official rates are then distributed by Thomson Reutors who is considered as the assigned wholesaler of these rates. After that it is made accessible to a great many banks the world over (Voxeu.org, 2015). The authority LIBOR rates are utilized by the banks itself as benchmarks for the clients as well as aides in the settlement of agreements. For instance developing loan fee contracts on subsidiaries trades. In this way Libor rate is considered as an indispensable component of the universal monetary arrangement of world. The subsequent stage is to make profit these rates to be checked and analyzed by the Foreign Exchange and Money Market Committee. The sub advisory groups assume a significant job in deciding and settling important issues identified with the disciplinary activities and LIBOR accommodation process too. It was resolved that there was a straightforward figuring system that was broadly utilized and considered as quality for over-the-counter subsidiaries. Job of Libor in the Commercial Sector: The pretended by the LIBOR rate was for the most part to fill in as a benchmark rate for financing of advances and assets over the world. The rate was utilized as an obligation instrument to the corporate securities and government, charge cards, advances given to the understudies, and furthermore as a subordinate to other money related items. It additionally assists with computing the present condition of the financial framework that is being worked on the planet (Yeung, 2013). Effect of LIBOR on its own business and buyers: Libor rate turned into a focal point of noteworthiness in deciding the credit strategies. It represents a degree of certainty that banks have on each other. The rate at which banks charge on credits and home loans relies upon the capacity at which banks can fund-raise too. On the off chance that there is a sure increment in the level of pounds it can add to many family units. In the event that banks can acquire all the more efficiently, at that point there is no compelling reason to offer great returns. For instance in the event that the base rate was 2 percent, at that point Libor would be 2.1 percent (BBC News, 2013). It is extremely basic for a buyer to realize which rates are tied up with Libor. Shoppers must know the first terms and conditions for it. The Libor rate influenced the money related markets too. It was essential for the banks to know to think about the genuine acquiring and loaning rates. The national bank ought to have observed the rates appropriately as Libor does. The new temporary workers needed an exchange based benchmark for the Libor component to work alongside the current contractual workers also. Libor was presently considered as an instrument to check how solid a bank is and it likewise portrays which banks are regarded with poor budgetary wellbeing (Gatarek, Bachert and Maksymiuk, 2006). End: It tends to be inferred that proposals should have been given for improving the rates forced by the Libor rate that can be executed in UK sooner rather than later. The Libor Scandal contention decreased the conditions of the market action and this prompted trading of list for the time being. This helped banks to make transient exchanges. It was likewise important to guarantee an increasingly dependable benchmarking framework that would improve the subsidizing expenses of the banks. This additionally empowered to give a lawful angle to make it progressively straightforward and open to the monetary business. References BBC News, (2013).Timeline: Libor-fixing outrage. [online] Available at: https://www.bbc.com/news/business-18671255 [Accessed 27 Feb. 2015]. Chamber on Foreign Relations, (2015).Understanding the Libor Scandal. [online] Available at: https://www.cfr.org/joined realm/understanding-libor-embarrassment/p28729 [Accessed 27 Feb. 2015]. Gatarek, D., Bachert, P. also, Maksymiuk, R. (2006).The LIBOR showcase model practically speaking. Chichester, England: John Wiley Sons. Worldwide Research, (201

Business Article Review - How to Write a Business Article Review

Business Article Review - How to Write a Business Article ReviewLooking to write a business article review? It can be a daunting task because there are so many fantastic tips out there, but it doesn't have to be that way.Business articles are there to help others by showing them how to better their business and build upon their reputation. With so many out there, how do you go about writing a proper article review? Do you really know what works best and what doesn't? What are some of the best business article review articles that you can use to help you gain more business?First of all, make sure you have an idea of what you are writing. That means that you are aware of the correct format for a business article review and what language to use. It also means that you are aware of the vital information that is included in the article. Once you know how to write, writing business article review articles is easy.There are several resources available for business article review. There are eBooks, training courses, and even free resources. Most free resources can be a good way to go about your business article review. If you find a free resource that can give you some help, you can quickly get started. You can then modify the information that you find into something that will help other business owners.The Internet is a great place to look for tips. Many times, companies will post their articles in different article directories. You can go through those directories and find many great article directories that will help you with your article review. Some of the best free resources that you can find on the Internet are EzineArticles.com and News Unlimited.com. They offer free eBooks, videos, and training courses that will help you with your business article review.You may be skeptical of spending money to help other business owners with their business article review. This is completely up to you. If you are feeling stuck, you can always pay for a service that will help you with your business article review. They can be helpful. There are also many articles out there that can help you out.Whether you decide to pay for a service or decide to write your own business article review, the important thing is that you know what it takes to get started. If you really want to see a great improvement in your business, you need to be willing to write and read.

Laissez Faire Lack of Government Interference in the...

Laissez Faire was policy that stated that the government should interfere as little as possible in the nations economy in the 1800s. This means that the government has little regulation in business and that businesses can operate in a purely free market. It had advocated individual self-interest and competition, and opposed the taxation and regulation of commerce by government. It had reached its peak during the age of industrialization in 1870s; a time when American manufacturing was made easier as factories were operated free handed. However, the governmental policy of Laissez Faire was in fact encouraged and continued by a direct government intervention. Not many know but government did include a big hand in the policy of Laissez Faire†¦show more content†¦For this, the government began to favor more, bigger businesses. The government was also involved in the Pullman Strike in 1894. The Pullman Strike was a nationwide conflict between labor unions and railroads. Pres ident Grover Cleveland sent the Marshals and US Army troops, commanded by Nelson Miles, to break the strike up between the labor unions and railroads. Therefore, the governmental policy of Laissez Fairewas in fact encouraged and continued by a direct government intervention, as they were the ones who help to end the conflict. During the 1800s as high protective tariff were passed, it had greatly helped the Northern factories and business by taxing the foreign goods. Another thing that helped business to grow and spread was when the US government had allowed immigrants to come into the nation. This had a vast influence as it helped to provide cheap labor for the factor owners. This allowed the North and the South to grow productively. Many did not realize but government was the one who was providing opportunities and was in fact encouraging economic development even during the time of Laissez faire. To make land cheaper for people to purchase and to grow business on, the US Congress has passed the Homestead Act in 1962. It had declared that any citizen could claim 160 acres but they must grow crops on it. The Homestead Act made settlement in the West feasible for many new immigrants. Even though theShow MoreRelatedThe Jacksonian Democratic Party And The Whig Party1770 Words   |  8 PagesDemocratic Party and the Whig Party each, exemplified different beliefs on the role of the federal government in the economy and towards westward expansion in the 1830s and 1840s. However, the Jacksonian, laissez faire supporting Democrats and the economic nationalistic Whig party shared almost no beliefs except for the removal of American Indians in the areas their supporters wished to settle. 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Substance Abuse and Addiciton A Very Brief History Essay...

Substance abuse can include any substance or substances such as alcohol, illegal drugs, prescription drugs, over the counter drugs, cigarettes etc. Any and all of these can become addictive to people very quickly. For years, people believed that addiction was a willful vice that they do to themselves. For years is has been viewed as an individual problem instead of a social problem. Americans today have many different views than 100 years ago about addiction, alcohol and drugs. In the early days of the 19th century, it was only a dream that a drug could save a life. Today drugs are used for specific treatments of specific diseases. However, they are also a multi billion-dollar business both legal and illegal that is not only saving†¦show more content†¦The fourth pharmacological revolution was the development of the oral contraceptive, which contributed to the sexual revolution, beginning to occur in the 1950’s and has not yet been stabilized. With oral contraceptives , they are not being used to prevent or treat disease but were being used by people to gain chemical control over their bodies. This may have helped pave the way for attempts to control emotion and thoughts by using chemistry. Drinking is okay, but drunkenness is not. Alcohol use was widely accepted since the time of first settlements. Due to Protestant reformers they discovered that drunkenness was viewed as a serious problem, often punished by putting a man in stocks for such an offense. Clearly the blame was on the sinner, not the alcohol itself. The view of alcohol as a cause of serious problems began in America soon after the American Revolution. Some people even to this day view alcohol as the devil of the demon. The first psychoactive substance to become demonized in American culture was alcohol. It led the way for similar views concerning cocaine, heroin, and marijuana. We are referring to a tendency to view a substance as an active (sometimes almost purposeful) source of evil, damaging everything it touches. This causes society to simply view it as â€Å"bad† and to seek to eliminate it. History of Substance Abuse Prevention Temperance Movement: 1784 Dr. Benjamin Rush wrote a book, The

Internet Spread the Uniformity of Cultures Essay Example For Students

Internet Spread the Uniformity of Cultures Essay The impact of the spread of the Internet on the uniformity of different cultures around the world Introduction With the development of Internet technology and enormous needs of networking around the world, the Internet is becoming dominant appliance in many sections such as business, communication and education. The spread of Internet in some degree has influenced uniformity of different cultures. However, cultures are not geography boundaries, they should not be considered as a result from spread of the Internet. Kaplan,2009) There are several reasons for the rapid spread of the Internet. Firstly, with the economic and technological developments in recent years, the spread of Internet around the world has sped up. Secondly, the improvement of networks makes the Internet more convenient and accessible such as wireless technology. Finally, with the rapid growth of people’s computer literacy and globalization needs, the Internet is becoming prevalent in business and daily commun ication around the world. Although there are numerous conveniences the Internet brought to our life, the spread of Internet in some degree influenced diversity or uniformity of different cultures around the world. In the following sections, we will focus on the causes and effects of uniformity of cultures resulted from the Internet and the importance of diversity of different cultures around the world. Main body The spread of Internet has resulted in the uniformity of cultures and with the coexistence of providing an opportunity for maintaining different cultures worldwide. The spread of Internet influenced the cultural globalization in several aspects such as business modes, communication, and education. There are several reasons of uniformity of cultures worldwide. Firstly, the development of economic globalization has played an important role in last decades, which means e-business is becoming dominant in many countries and learning the global cultures especially western cultures for developing countries to grow international businesses is becoming important (Voiskounsky, 1996). Secondly, the spread of English influenced people around the world to use the Internet. With English is becoming the official language to communicate in international conferences and events, there are increasing numbers of people are learning English language and English speaking countries cultures around the world(Pollack, 1995). For example, there are a lot of academic articles and websites are in English, which means if people want to understand the information, they need to learn the language. During entering a webpage that just shows with English, it leads people want to learn this language. It is benefit for people to know about other cultures. Finally, the uniformity of different cultures around the world is mainly reflected in westernization. For example, American cultures of fast food and movies have a great impact on people around the world. However, the Internet has played an important role as a media to spread these cultures (Milner, 2003). The impact of the spread of Internet to the homogeneity of different cultures is beneficial to people around the world. Learning global cultures can help people around the world to communicate with different people and understand global issues such as human rights (Kaplan,2009). However, there are problems with the uniformity of different cultures because most people lost their local cultures when applying to global ones such as minority languages. The diversity of cultures would disappear around the world. The spread of the Internet resulted in the maintenance of culture diversity. Firstly, there are many websites are in their own languages, which means it is not necessary for people to learn English to browse the internet information. Next reason is because cultures are not passive objects; we could not expect people around the world to learn global culture through the Internet(Coffman and Odlyzko, 2001). Finally, people around the world communicate through the Internet in some way results in maintaining diversity of cultures. For example, people from different communities can participate various groups via Internet such as jazz music clubs or classic opera fans. The effects of maintaining cultural diversity are in two aspects. One is people would develop their local cultural; it is good for the development of diversity society rather than westernization world. The other one is local people with different cultures would compete with each other and possibly would cause society instability. Conclusion The spread of Internet has influenced the uniformity of different cultures especially demonstrated with global cultures. In the meantime, as a media for maintaining diversity cultures, the spread of Internet has impact for the result. However, cultures are not geography boundaries, therefore, the Internet has not significantly resulted in the uniformity or diversity of different cultures.

Analysis of two different film interpretations of Macbeth Essay Example

Analysis of two different film interpretations of Macbeth Paper The famous Shakespearean work of Macbeth deals with issues that are relevant to any society in any age. It explores the far reaching effects of one mans ambition, from the total transformation of Macbeths character. From a national hero to a nation-wide terror in his pursuit of power. Although Macbeth is set in Medieval Scotland, the issues that are dealt with, the supernatural, Ambition and Tyranny are still just as relevant in our society now as they were in Shakespearean England. The relevance to todays society was displayed in the modern interpretation Macbeth on the estate. Where contemporary ideas of the work was but across while still using the Shakespearean backbone. We compared this version to a far more traditional interpretation directed by Roman Polanski, filmed in the 1970s The modern version of Macbeth Macbeth on the estate opens on a desolate wasteland. In the background we can make out the large shadows of desolate tower blocks. Through the mist we can see a dark shadow walking toward us. The shadow emerges out of the mist. It is Macduff. Immediately we notice the changes the director has made to this opening scene. The first difference from the original play is the use of Macduff opening the play instead of the three witches. To understand the directors decision we must remember that four hundred years ago witchcraft was a major part of life and each year hundreds of witches were being burnt at the stake for practising the dark arts. We will write a custom essay sample on Analysis of two different film interpretations of Macbeth specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Analysis of two different film interpretations of Macbeth specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Analysis of two different film interpretations of Macbeth specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Nowadays witchcraft does not have the same appeal to the audience who would watch this version and we a forced to conclude that Macduff was used to grab the audiences attention. A factor that was used to grab the audiences attention was the colour of Macduffs skin, black. The directors decision to make Macduff black is purely and simply to captivate the audiences mind. The use of Macduff as a leading character could stimulate people from ethnic minorities to show an interest in the film. By giving these people a major film character they may be able to understand the relevance of the play to themselves. The directors decision could have also been due to the large number of African and Jamaican immigrants living in the council flats on the estates such as Ladywood where this film was made. Towards the end of Macduffs speech the ghostly music and the foggy atmosphere lifts and we are catapulted into a violent robbery at the Thane of Cawdors house. At the house we get a glimpse of what the Thane is watching on television, the lottery. The directors use of the national lottery shows the social hardship and poverty that many families have to go through on the estate. And it seems as though, by playing the lottery and winning a fortune it is the only way out of the hardship. We only get a short glimpse of the fight scene, but from what we see and the accompanying fast paced music the director chooses to use gives us the impression that the fight is both brutal and savage. Once the robbery is complete, Macbeth reports back to Duncan in the local pub. Macbeth greets Duncan with a friendly pat on the back, this very informal relationship between Macbeth and Duncan symbolises their friendship and trust of one another. Duncan too is very informal, his loud, colourful beer stained shirt is only fastened by a couple of buttons, revealing his bloated stomach, from the beginning of this scene we are meant to dislike Duncan. This is very different from the much-liked Duncan in the original play. Although we the audience dislike Duncan. The crowd in the pub appears friendly with him. They all laugh when he tells them a joke. Although it is not clear whether the crowd show genuine respect for him personally or are forced to show respect to him due to his immense power and influence over the estate and the people living there. This power and influence that Duncan has is also abused, later that night, a party is held over at Macbeths house to celebrate his new position as Thane of Cawdor. Duncan, Banquet, Macduff and his family turn up late evening and bring a large amount of beer. Duncan immediately shows his dominance over females, defiantly not by charm but perhaps by strength by pinning her up against a wall he starts to pet and stoke her. Lady Macbeth turns away and forces Duncan to realise he cannot charm Lady Macbeth by using brute force. The directors decision to make Duncan appear possessive over women makes the audience feel more bitter towards him, and the decision by lady Macbeth prompts us to think she is a very strong willed character. Something she needs later on in the play. At the end of the night, Duncan is very obviously drunk. He is helped up, and taken to bed by Lady Macbeth. Duncan flops into bed next to a young black girl, probably in her early twenties. A contrast to Duncans age of middle to late thirties. The directors decision to make Duncan sleep with a young girl highlights the problems of prostitution on the estate, and Duncans desire to posses a women by sleeping around. Moments later he his murdered. Duncans funeral is very small. Only Macbeth, Lady Macbeth, Banquet, Macduff and a few others attend. The large crowd of supporters seen at the pub have all disappeared. And there are only a few onlookers. The directors decision for the crowd of supporters to disappear is a social issue in todays society. Nowadays society seems to have a lust for money. Wherever that money is, thats where the crowds are, and when the money disappears the crowd does as well. This is what happened to Duncan; he was lulled into a false sense of security by the large crowds at the pub that appeared to protect him from the outside world, which may have been true. But they could not protect him from a man inside who he trusts, Macbeth. Macbeths crime, murdering Duncan could have been classed as a crime of passion. Macbeth was certainly very jealous of Duncans position as king, and with Macbeths wife, Lady Macbeths Charms it is not long before Macbeth is convinced to kill Duncan. We first see Lady Maceth in her house; she is listening to an answer machine message of Macbeth telling her he is now Thane of Cawdor. The decision by the director to make Lady Macbeth get the message by answer phone instead of messenger is purely society based, nowadays, nearly every household in Britain has a telephone. And it is now commonplace to send E-mails or talk to someone on a telephone rather than talk to him or her face to face. Just after receiving this message, Lady Macbeth walks to another part of the house, a small childs room. We are not entirely sure why she enters the room; it may be that Macbeths phone call has stirred up some forgotten memories. The room is clean, and appears regularly cleaned. But as soon as Lady Macbeth enters the room, the music changes. All of a sudden we hear a lullaby played on a childs toy, this tune. This tune, although very simple, stirs a lot of emotion, as we the audience imagine a young child in that room, there is no child in this room, only Lady Macbeth. The use of a wide angel lens is effective. As Lady Macbeth is in the centre of the picture, the camera captures a large angle of the room. And it is as though no one belongs in this room, as it seems so unused. The bright colours of the wallpaper and the bed make it contrast with what Lady Macbeth is wearing, and it makes it look as though Lady Macbeth does not belong here. The importance of children to Lady Macbeth is portrayed in a number of scenes in the play. At the kareoke, Lady Macbeth is holding a child. Also, the quantity of pregnancy testing kits she owns show that until a short time ago, she and Macbeth were still trying to have a child of their own. Lady Macbeths influence over Macbeth in this version is different to the original play. In the original play, Lady Macbeth does influence Macbeth through her appearance. But in Macbeth on the estate her influence over Macbeth is far more sexual. The main scene where this is most obvious is in Lady Macbeths and Macbeths Bedroom, during the party. Downstairs while everyone else is drinking themselves stupid, Lady Macbeth is busy convincing Macbeth to kill Duncan. Lady Macbeth is wearing a very low and revealing top. She is talking to him in a very low voice, all the time; she is making him agree to her plans to kill Duncan, by wooing him with her appearance. It works, Macbeth agrees to her plans. But at the last minute, Macbeth forgets a vital part of the plan, to wipe the guards knives in Duncans blood. Macbeth is a psychological wreck, so Lady Macbeth goes on her own and wipes the blades. This shows she is a very strong willed character, and as previously, she said the famous line unsex me now she now supposedly now has the strength of a man and is able to do more demanding tasks and is more prepared for them. This mental readiness does not last long, as soon Lady Macbeth turns insane. Convinced she can see blood on her hands. To rid herself of the guilt, she repeatedly washes her hands, trying to rid herself of the guilt. At one point, she also believes she has a child, and we can also see her tucking it up into bed. This was not used in the original play. But the director of Macbeth on the estate decides to use it in the film. The use of this makes Lady Macbeth appear more insane, as she has always wanted a child, and now she is imagining it. Soon, the once psychologically stable Lady Macbeth turn suicidal, and throws herself off the top of a tower block, the directors use of cameras comes into play here. As Lady Macbeth jumps, time appears to slow down and she falls much slower. I believe the director did this to make the audience reflect on Lady Macbeths life. When she finally does hit the ground, she is surrounded by onlookers of small children. This is another social issue of the estate. That young children are subjected to the horrors of death when they are as young as eight years old. It seems somewhat odd that Lady Macbeth wanted a child so much when she knew it would be subjected to such hardships on the estate. The end of this film was, to sum it up disappointing. For a film as fast paced and action packed I expected more. There was also no army and no mention of Birnam wood. The film ends with Macduff killing Macbeth with a single shot from a pistol. The directors decision to end the film with a bullet and not a sword or knife is another social issue, as it is now possible to kill someone without getting your hands dirty. The decision could have also been for suspense. As the last thing we expected was Macduff to walk in with a gun. I for one expected a fight between Macbeths supporters and Fleances supporters. Having said that I thoroughly enjoyed this film although I did think the end was disappointing. I will now compare the contemporary version of Macbeth, Macbeth on the estate with the more traditional version of the play. This version of Macbeth was directed by Roman Polanski. This version was produced in the 1970s when special effects were lacking. I will compare four parts and characters of this play, with Macbeth on the estate. These parts will be: the beginning, the character Lady Macbeth, the character Duncan and the end of the play. In each case, In each case I will try to compare: the use of camera angles, costumes, surroundings, sound and lighting. This version of Macbeth is very traditional and the contrast to Macbeth on the estate is shown in the opening scene. As Macbeth on the estate opened on a desolate urban wasteland with Macduff, instead of the witches speaking. In this version the three witches are on the wasteland, burying a hand, a noose and a dagger. The three witches are very stereotypical views of witches, old, wrinkled skin and dark clothes. That hobble out of the mist. This stereotypical view of the witches is common in Shakespeares time. When one of the ways in telling one was a witch or not was by appearance. Although witches are no longer as important to us today as they were back in the Middle Ages. The director uses them to produce a sense of mystery and uncertainty. Another of the directors tools of making the viewer fell emotion is lighting. In this version, the director uses lighting far better than the director of Macbeth on the estate and his well lit scene. In Polanskis version, the lack of lighting is used very well. As the darkness hides the witches faces and makes them appear more mysterious. Another lighting effect is the use of fog and mist. Again this helps the audience to relate to the witches more. As the fog and mist helps to block out most of the light on the set. This improves the atmosphere. The music too creates an atmosphere of uncertainty and confusion. As the sounds of the low instruments played to a very disorganised tune creates confusion and the wasteland. In fact, the only thing the director has changed is where the scene is set, on a beach. The directors decision to set the opening scene on a beach is rather baffling, as there seems to be no justification for his decision. I myself am forced to conclude that the only viable reason the director had, to set the scene on a beach was due to the fog effect, as early morning, the sea produces a mist that can be used to make the atmosphere more still and eerie. Towards the end of the scene, the fog thickens and the witches hobble off into the distance. The fog then slowly turns red. This is very effective, as the colour of the fog and the sound of battle make us think the battle was very fierce and bloody. We first see Duncan in his castle; he is overseeing the execution of the previous Thane of Cawdor. He is being hung. This is a contrast from Macbeth on the estate where the Thane was killed by a petrol bomb being thrown into the car in which he was sat. Being hung is a more traditional way of executing a traitor, rather than blowing them up. This traditional style is reflected in where Duncan is and what he is wearing. As this play is more formal and traditional, Duncan is in a castle rather than a pub. And is wearing clean, posh robes and a crown. A crown is a symbol of a kings power and wealth. And Polanskis decision to make Duncan wear a crown is purely tradition, as a pose to Macbeth on the estate where Duncan is very informal and dresses casually. In this version, Duncans clothes are very traditional. In this version. Duncans clothes are more subdued and calm than Duncans clothes from Macbeth on the estate where he wears. Loud and bright clothes. The directors decision is purely social. In medieval Britain, the king was a social icon, someone who you could look up to in times of need. And because of this, the King needed to look presentable. Nowadays though, society has become much more laid back in its approach. And in accordance with the rest of society, the King, in this case Duncan has changed his image to be more inline with the rest of society. Another difference between the two versions is the use of friendship. And in particular, the difference between the friendship of Duncan and Macbeth. In Macbeth on the estate the relationship is very informal, as when Macbeth meets Duncan, he gives him a hearty pat on the back. Whereas in Polanskis version of Macbeth, the relationship is much more formal, as when Macbeth meets Duncan, Macbeth bows. An effective use of camera angles is use of camera angles is in a scene of Macbeth and Duncan. The director positions the camera so Duncan appears much higher than Macbeth does. This shows Duncans power and hierarchy over Macbeth and his people. Another difference in Polanskis version compared to Macbeth on the estate is Duncans behaviour around women. In Macbeth on the estate Duncans behaviour around women is very poor and he often treats women with little or no respect. As in one scene he presses Lady Macbeth up against a wall. But in Polanskis version, Duncan shows much more respect, and in the dance held at Macbeths castle to celebrate his promotion to Thane of Cawdor. He is seen dancing with numerous women who seem happy to be in his company. The directors decision to make Duncan appear popular among women is there top make us like Duncan as a person and not only as a King. But later that night Duncan is murdered. Although we do not see Duncans funeral, we imagine it to be a very sombre affair. And we do actually get a glimpse of the funeral Procession, we can see it is very fitting for era. A carriage, pulled by horses along a windswept path, surrounded by a group of soldiers marching into the distance. In this version of Macbeth as well as Macbeth on the estate. The first time we catch a glimpse of lady Macbeth is in her house, or in this version in her and Macbeths castle. She has just received a letter from a messenger from Macbeth informing her that he has been made Thane of Cawdor. The decision by the director to make Lady Macbeth receive the news by horseman rather than by telephone or E-mail is purely because telephone and electricity had not yet been invented. Also, receiving letters by messenger was a symbol of your wealth and prosperity in society. As normal citizens could not afford messengers, they relied on word of mouth. Another difference in Lady Macbeth are the clothes she wears. As in Macbeth on the estate she wore very low cut, revealing outfits, that were used to charm Macbeth into doing her deeds more than anything. But in this version, Lady Macbeth wears very concealing, traditional clothes. Her clothes were also dull colours, such as greens and dark blues. A sharp contrast to the sometimes bright clothes worn by Lady Macbeth in Macbeth on the estate. The decision by Polanski to change the clothes worn by Lady Macbeth is to, historical. As in the era that Macbeth was set, women took a sidelining role to the men in society. And what a mans wife wore indicated many things, such as income. As a man with a wife who wore expensive clothes was obviously far richer than a man whose wife wore cheap, tatty clothes. The styles of clothes she wears are also far more traditional. A long green or blue dress is also very fitting for this period of time. After Duncans murder has been carried out, Lady Macbeth gradually turns insane. As she is constantly cleaning herself and walking around naked. This madness is very similar to that of the madness shown by Lady Macbeth in Macbeth on the estate. This idea of her cleaning herself continuously to remove the guilt she has engraved in her conscience is a very good point. And is picked up by each director. But very soon, Lady Macbeths insurmountable guilt turns suicidal and she finally commits suicide. Although we do not see Lady Macbeth take her own life, we hear her. The scream that she emits as she plunges, presumably from a top floor window is heart rendering. The light is very low, and this is there to create atmosphere and tension, before our thoughts are confirmed that she has killed herself. The end of Polanskis version of Macbeth is virtually identical to the ending that Shakespeare wrote. And the difference in endings is a big difference between this version and that of Macbeth on the estate. In Macbeth on the estate. The ending was very sudden, and there was no long, drawn out fight as Shakespeare intended. As, in fact, Macbeths death is very sudden. The end of this film is rather disappointing. And there is also no mention of Birnam wood, which I believe is a very important part of the end, as it was in the witches predictions. Whereas, on the contrary to Macbeth on the estate Polanski Plays by the book At the beginning of the battle. English and Scottish troops are camouflaging themselves into Birnam wood, and then begin to march towards his castle. Macbeth is not the first man to see them, but one of his guards does see them. He turns to Macbeth and shouts to look towards Birnam wood. When Macbeth does see Birnam wood marching towards him. We can imagine the terror he feels. Macbeth cannot believe the witches prediction has come true. The camera angle that Polanski uses is very effective, in relaying this fear to the audience. The camera is focused directly at Macbeths face. And the dramatic qualities shown by the actor who plays Macbeth is excellent, as he stares into nothing we can imagine the shock he is in. When the English and Scottish soldiers enter the castle, they encounter little resistance. As the only defender, other than Macbeth is Seyton, Macbeths loyal armourer. Although he is dispatched by a crossbow bolt to the forehead. But that special effect is rather crudely done, but we must remember that this film was made in the 1970s before High performance computers were around. Especially the ones used to create the special effect laden film, The Matrix. The fight scene between Macbeth and a group of soldiers is rather unusual, and a little confusing, because there are approximately 5 to 10 soldiers against the lone Macbeth. But instead of going in all at the same time, they only go in one at once. This may be chivalry where you gave your opponent a fair chance. But I dont think thats what Polanski meant. We all know that Macbeth can only be killed by Macduff. This is not very well done by the director, as we think it is daft that the soldiers only go in one at once. Once Macbeth finally does get mortally wounded by Macduff, he hobbles around aimlessly around the courtyard with a sword stuck through his chest, Until about 3 minutes after he is stabbed he dies. This is too create suspense before death, but we all know its just a bad case of bad acting. Although I think this ending was better than Macbeth on the estates ending which was rather disappointing due to what a good film it was. I felt there were certain parts of Polanskis ending that was very god, such as the moment Macbeth sees Birnam wood approaching him, and there are other parts that are terrible such as the killing of Seyton by a crossbow bolt, where the special effects were lacking. Overall I think this was an average end to a below average film.

Transactional Analysis Essays

Transactional Analysis Essays Transactional Analysis Essay Transactional Analysis Essay The reaction of people to a management problem cannot always be anticipated. But, we can predict the kind of responses our interventions may evoke from people. How? The answer is –with the help of transactional analysis. When people interact in assertive or non-assertive ways, there is a social transaction in which one person responds to another. The study of these social transactions between people is called transactional analysis. It is a method of analyzing and understanding behaviour. Transactional analysis was developed by ERIC BERNE for psychotherapy in the 1950s. It was popularized by Berne’s book ‘Games People Play (1964)’, the writings of Thomas Harris, Muriet James and Dorothy Jougeward and Abe Wagner. Jougeward and Wagner have shown how the concepts of transactional analysis can be applied to organizations. Objective- The objective of transactional analysis (TA) is to provide better understanding of how people relate to one another so that they may develop improved communication and human relationships. TA is are outgrowth of earlier Freudian psychology Sigmund. Freud was the first to suggest that there are 3 sources within the human personality that stimulate, monitor and control behaviour. The Freudian ego and superego are important concepts, but their definitions are difficult to understand or apply without extensive training in psychotherapy. Thus, one of the major contributions of TA theorists is that they have, in a sense, borrowed from Freud but have put some of his concepts into a language that everyone can understand and without being trained psychiatrists, can use for diagnostic purpose in understanding why people behave as they do. Ego States According to TA, a transaction is a stimulus plus a response. For eg. if we praise somebody, that’s a stimulus. The thanks which that person gives in return is the response. Thus, transactions take place between people. They can also take place between the people in our heads. If we have a sudden impulse to say something to someone, we may mentally hear a voice telling us not to say it and then a second voice agreeing. These people in our heads are called ego states. According to BERNE, two people interact with eac h other from one of the three psychological positions, known as ego states. PERSONALITY- COLLECTION OF BEHAVIOUR His idea about human personality being multi-faceted was particularly influential on Berne. This idea that regardless of what the particular areas of personality are labeled, each person â€Å"possesses factions that frequently collide with each other. It is these collisions and interactions between these personality factions that manifest themselves as an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. † (The International Transactional Analysis Association, 1999). Through Freudian theory, these would be understood as the id, ego, and superego. Dr. Berne felt that Freud’s proposed structures were more â€Å"concepts and not phenomenological realities:†(Berne D. E. , 2001). Although influenced by Freud, his approach took on a different method altogether. Freud believed that the three aspects of personality (Id, Ego, and Superego) needed to be well balanced in order to achieve a good state of mental health. Berne created a theory that considered a different approach, one that was based on the original idea of Freud that personalities are multi-faceted(Berne D. E. , 2001). Berne took the alternative approach to therapy and instead of asking the client about it directly, it seemed that a problem was easier understood by observing the communication (verbal and nonverbal) in a transaction. Therefore, instead of interviewing the client directly, he took a different route and would observe the client in the group setting, noting all of the transactions that occurred between both the patient and the individuals involved in therapy. Also attractive to Berne was Federn’s work on analysis, structure, and the multiple aspects of the ego that resulted in human transactions (Turner, 1986). This also represents the split from the Freudian mainstream between the psychodynamic theorists and the ego psychologists. Probably most notable is Erik Erikson, whose life-span theory focused more on the ego as a separate structure, rather than a derivative of the id. Dr. Berne studied under Erik Erickson for two years prior to striking out on his own. Erickson’s view on the importance of developmental life stages was the springboard for Transactional Analysis, as demonstrated by the key concepts of this theory. Berne believed that the personality was structured into three different ego states: Parent, Adult, and Child. He moved from believing these were mere â€Å"theoretical concepts† to the idea that these were directly observable in his patients. Instead of making assumptions based on prior Freudian teaching, Berne would ask the question directly to the patient, asking which state was currently speaking(Prochaska, 2010). Biologically speaking, there is evidence that helped to also support the development of Transactional Analysis. Dr. Wilder Penfield, a neurosurgeon from McGill University in Montreal, Canada was experimenting with the effects of applying electrical currents to specific regions of the brain(Berne D. E. , 2001). From this he found that by stimulating certain areas, it brought forth meaningful memories, which helped to reveal a person’s past, accompanied with feelings and emotions that went with these forgotten memories. The direct influence on Berne as a result of these experiments was as follows: -the human brain acts in many ways like a camcorder, vividly recording events. While that event may not necessarily be able to be consciously retrieved by the owner, the event always exists in the brain. -both the event and the feelings experienced during that event are stored in the brain. The event and the feelings are locked together, and neither one can be recalled without the other. -when an individual replays his or her experiences, he or she can replay them in such a vivid form that the individual experiences again the same emotions he or she felt during the actual experience (Berne D. E. , 2001). Individuals are able to exist in two states simultaneously. Individuals replaying certain events are able to experience the emotions associated with those events, but they are able to objectively talk about the events (Berne D. E. , 2001). This would explain how a client could identify which â€Å"state† from where the discussion or feelings are coming from. Berne worked to assist the patient in identifying the emotions, feelings, and this became the point from which the progress in therapy could begin. It was in 1958 that Berne started the San Francisco Psychiatry Seminars, a small group of professionals that met to discuss their interest in social treatment. Turner, 1986). It was during these sessions that many different approaches to psychotherapy were discussed. The idea of these seminars took off and soon professionals interested in this type of discussion were traveling from everywhere to attend. His theory became a method of therapy, through which standards, training, and certification were developed. Key Concepts/Central Propos itions The framework of this approach is based on a transaction, which Berne considered the fundamental unit of social intercourse. He also used the terminology of â€Å"strokes†, which he defined as â€Å"units of social recognition† (Turner, 1986) He drew on the work of Rene Spitz, who looked at why infants suffered from failure to thrive. Spitz did studies on children in orphanages and the devastating effects of lack of touching and nurturing of the child. It was through these studies that Berne developed the concept of the importance of stroking, and how he felt it crucial for human survival. He expanded on this idea of the physical touch and attention to include that of verbal transactions as well. He defined a stroke as â€Å"the fundamental unit of social action† (Berne D. E. , 2001). Berne’s theory of Transactional Analysis explored this idea of stroking, based on the assumption that people spend their lives seeking strokes (Turner, 1986). These strokes can be negative, positive, conditional, and unconditional and can be given verbally, nonverbally, and physically. It is by knowing your own and your client’s â€Å"stroke economy†, it helps develop information on how you can problem-solve (Witkin, 1988) together (Turner, 1986). Berne also developed the idea of three ego states; this is in addition to the analysis of the interactions between individuals. He defined the ego state as â€Å"a consistent pattern of feeling and experience directly related to a corresponding consistent pattern of behavior (Berne D. E. , 2001). Berne noticed as he worked with his clients that they had different displays of behavior that constantly changed during his counseling sessions. He would notice that the individual had different â€Å"states of being†, which he began to refer to as the â€Å"adult, child, and parent†. Not at all imitating the id, ego, and superego; these concepts stood on their own as phenomenological realities. He was able to confirm these ego states with observable behaviors that could be measured, thus creating a justifiable place in the scientific community. Berne created unique definitions for the three ego states, Parent, Child, and Adult, all of which were the underlying fabric for his theory. He felt that child were widely influenced by their parents, thus the first few years of life were spent collecting and recording what as experienced and modeled to them. This includes the values, morals, and beliefs taught by the parents. When a patient was in this stage, they would react in a way that they feel their parents would react. Berne referred to this as a time â€Å"when children have no way of filtering the data, therefore these events are â€Å"imposed† on the child†(Berne D. E. , 2001). There are two aspects of this Parent ego state which need to be address ed, those being the Nurturing Parent (NP) and the Controlling Parent (CP), both of which have positive and negative aspects (Corey, 2008). The positive consists of nurturing the Child stage and moving from the parental influence to more of how the child actually perceives events. Exploration was done in the area of feelings and emotions that were experienced during this stage. The final ego state in this theory is Adult, this is the time when a child starts to experience some independence (thus, the start of the Adult in the small child). This is exhibited by gross motor activity within the child. Different than what the child observed (Parent) and felt (Child), the Adult provides the platform for evaluating and validating the Child and Parental data. A simplification of Transactional Analysis would be to describe the Parent as the taught concept, the Child as the felt concept, and the Adult as the learned concept(Berne D. E. , 2001). Yet another important concept in Transactional Analysis is what Berne considered Time Structuring(The International Transactional Analysis Association, 1999). Looking at how humans use their time can indicate whether or not they are socially healthy. With each distinction of time usage (withdrawal, ritual, pastimes, activities, games, and intimacy) there are both social advantages and disadvantages. It is through this analysis that one can be determined to be in â€Å"control† of their time spent. This theory encourages time spent for creative, spontaneous work and play, which is indicative of a healthy person. In his book, The Games People Play, Berne states that the â€Å"eternal problem of the human being is how to structure his waking hours† (pg. 5). Time-structuring is also known as â€Å"programming† and consists of three aspects: material, social, and individual. The material programming provides opportunities for â€Å"stroking† that arise through activities where social exchange must occur in order to progress to the intended goal. These activities offer a matrix for â€Å"stroking†, recognition, and other more complex forms of social intercourse(Berne E. , 1964). The social aspect of â€Å"programming† is the criteria provided by both the parents and the culture in which a child is raised. These are the cues to what types of behavior are acceptable, which are reinforced through structure and reinforcements. This guidance is provided for the individual through unspoken rules and regulations, however, eventually the individual programming will take over. Individual programming takes over and the person may choose to act against the norm- this is known as â€Å"the game†(Berne E. , 1964). This individual programming attempts to explain abnormal, dysfunctional behavior, which Berne describes as â€Å"games†(The International Transactional Analysis Association, 1999). As related to the concept of needing strokes, whether positive or negative, dysfunctional behavior is a result of attempting to get these strokes. Often times, this need for strokes tends to reinforce negative feelings and self-concepts, which in turn, tends to help hide the real thoughts and emotions of people. Thus, the negative behavior of the individual continues. Berne described this cycle as a result of â€Å"self-limiting behaviors†- these are actions that were learned during childhood that were used as a means of survival. This is what is known in Transactional Analysis as the â€Å"life script†, or the pre-conscious life plan that governs the way life is lived out (The International Transactional Analysis Association, 1999). The purpose behind Transactional Analysis is changing this â€Å"life script† through a mutual contracting for change. It acknowledges that clients have the ability to decide what they need for their lives and work in a positive manner to make the changes needed to move towards reaching these goals. Assumptions Transactional analysis is based on the assumption that individuals have the ability to become aware of decisions that govern behavior. These individuals are assumed to have the capacity to make new decisions that will alter the life course in a beneficial manner(Corey, 2008). Another core assumption of this theory is that a life position is chosen early in life, based on early experiences. Children make a precocious decision about how they are in life compared to others around them. This â€Å"life position† has four possibilities: â€Å"I’m OK- you’re OK, I’m OK- you’re not OK, I’m not OK- you’re OK, or I’m not OK- you’re not OK† (Prochaska, 2010). Berne believed that generally, all children are born with the notion that they are â€Å"OK†, it is the programming that occurs that may change how the child views themselves and the world around them. This theory also assumed that people experiencing social or emotional difficulty are intelligent and capable of understanding their stress. People are responsible for their own healing process. He also felt that all social and emotional difficulties are curable, given adequate knowledge and a proper approach. Berne demonstrated through Transactional Analysis theory the belief that anything that has learned can be relearned(Corey, 2008). There are some instances where we have not discovered how to approach specific populations of people that are diagnosed with things such as schizophrenics, alcoholism, etc. Berne felt that these populations of people were â€Å"good† and capable of leading satisfying lives that do not interfere with others. Using the foundation of theory evaluation criteria provided by Witkin and Gottschalk(1988), the first condition is that the theory should be explicitly critical; including an examination of its historical, political, and cultural implications. This theory is substantive in that it collects content based on the three ego states(Berne D. E. , 2001). Through this procedure, it provides a methodology of steps needed in therapy, information that is important to obtain, and ways to evaluate and analyze information collected. It takes into account the aspects of social constructivism, which is an attempt to develop a meaningful science of human behavior(Witkin, 1988). Social contructionism, as defined by Witkin and Gottschalk(1988), consists of assumptions based on common understandings of the world as a function of cultural and historical contexts. This understanding occurs through a process of social interaction and the understanding is based on social processes- these descriptions and explanations of social phenomena constrain certain patterns and reinforce others(Witkin, 1988). Transactional Analysis theory parallels social contructionism through the life scripting that occurs early in childhood, based on the transactions and reinforcements that occur through programming, particularly the social aspect. By utilizing the client as the resource for gaining the information, whether it is through observing interactions both verbal and nonverbal, it will provide a better comprehension of the meaning behind the client’s communication. Witkin and Gottshcalk(1988) also consider the idea the theory should recognize that humans are active agents, meaning people act according to their intentions nd can surmount obstacles and transform them. Based on this concept, Transactional Analysis fits this criteria perfectly. It is a theory based on the idea that it is essential for people to be involved in their own treatment process. Berne had an implicit viewpoint that humans understand their stress more than any other and they also realize that the change process is v ital to their happiness. Witkin and Gottschalk(1988) also evaluate theory on the aspect that it should account for the life experiences of the client. By looking at the three ego states of Transactional Analysis; the Child, the Parent, and the Adult, it takes into consideration the specific influences, both internal and external that each person has experienced in their life. This is the basis for the predicated movement towards change for the client. The social justice aspect would be present in allowing the opportunity for each individual to feel their experiences were valid, and beneficial to the therapeutic process (Witkin, 1988). Viewing this theory through another analytic framework provided by Fischer(1973), there are five areas of theories that may be considered for analysis to determine effectiveness. The structural characteristics of Transactional Analysis are proscriptive in nature, meaning there is an explanation and tools to use in therapy. Unlike Freudian concepts that are descriptive, Berne was able to create measurable terminology that was used to determine findings in a consistent manner. The measure of an effective theory, according to Fischer(1973), is that the theory is testable. Through Transactional Analysis theory, there are clearly defined terms, such as strokes (both positive and negative), ego states, and transactions. Berne gave solid, measurable definitions of these terms and provided the ability to test this theory in a scientific, measurable manner(Berne D. E. , 2001). By following the process of script analysis, Transactional Analysis provides the individual with the awareness of how they acquired their life script and allows them to see more clearly their life role. This realization assists the individual in opening up possibilities for making changes and contracting provides the roadmap. Fisher (1973) also provides criteria that the theory should be comprehensive in nature, which Transactional Analysis seems to comply. It allows the client to explore both learning externally (the Parent) and internally (the Child), with the client analyzing these interactions through an exploration of how one affects the other (the Adult). This would appear to be a useful theory, as it is provides techniques for therapeutic intervention. Transactional Analysis is able to explain normal behavior, although it is not clear on abnormal behavior such as schizophrenia or criminal behavior. It does not account for those clients that do not have a positive viewpoint or willingness to change their â€Å"life script†. When utilizing Fischer’s method of analyzing theory, one must consider the assumptions made about human nature. This theory views people in a very optimistic, positive manner. It promotes creativity, relaxation, and the ability to recognize what changes need to be made(Berne D. E. , 2001). It emphasizes a positive worker/client relationship that promotes good rapport, trust, and the willingness to create a plan for change(Clary, 1980). It appears to be in line with the core values of social work, including self-determination and respect for client rights, individualism, and dignity(NASW, 2008). This is demonstrated by allowing the client to recognize instances of how the â€Å"life script† developed and thus clients are increasing empowered to choose their ego state at any particular time(Prochaska, 2010). Transactional analysis provides the opportunity for the therapist to relate as an equal to the client. The clients are able to progress in therapy at their own pace, further demonstrating the value of self-determination. This theory encourages the volitional powers of patient right from the onset of treatment by making it a contractual arrangement(Prochaska, 2010). According to the analytical framework provided by Fischer, this would appear to be a very useful, valid theory for use in practice (Fischer, 1973). Using the theory in the social work profession Transactional Analysis still is utilized today in the field of social work. In fact, there still exists training and certification in this very area of specialization. Berne was interested in more than just the client progressing slowly, he wanted to provide a method of coping that would assist individuals on an immediate, daily basis. In general, social workers also strive for immediate relief for clients, groups, and communities. It is important to establish an immediate rapport with clients in order to make progress towards meeting goals. Transactional analysis describes this very concept through â€Å"stroking â€Å", which requires a social worker to understand both their need and ability to provide this type of reinforcement (Berne D. E. , 2001). In practice social workers must be able to model positive stroke giving as an important part of effective practice. In theory, the process of learning to give and receive strokes will help alleviate feelings of depression and loneliness and increase personal intimate relationships. Using the three identified ego states allows for the therapist to make assessments regarding the client in the areas of thinking, feeling, and learning. Berne provides four ways to identify or diagnose ego states; behavioral, social phenomenological, and historical(Berne D. E. , 2001). Behavioral diagnosis would consist of gesture, voice, and vocabulary that are typical in each ego state. A social diagnosis would consist of how people react to the client; a phenomenological diagnosis is experiencing in the present old feelings from the past, and a and historical diagnosis would be looking at the past reflected in the present. All of these consist of the process of deciding how one wants to be socially with others, social work theory and practice support methods to gain autonomy (Turner, 1986). Providing an atmosphere for change is another way in which this theory is used in social work practice. The Child ego state wants comfort and warmth, time for exploration and activity. This is provided for the client using this theory by giving them a comfortable atmosphere in which to do therapy. This helps to develop a caring position for developing the rapport needed for the client to be able to problem solve and work towards changing their behavior. To be effective, transactional analysts must be genuine in therapy, they must believe in relating as equals with clients(Prochaska, 2010). Another form of social treatment using the Transactional Analysis method for social workers is the initial use of positive stroking. In this field the recognition of asking for help is a sign that the client is trying to cope and it is an indicator of client autonomy. Therefore, it is essential in the initial stages that the practice of positive stroking occurs, this builds rapport and provides and effective, therapeutic environment(Napper, 2009). The social worker also is able to provide a provision of protection for the client, in both an individual and group therapy situation(Corey, 2008). A client is encouraged to participate in self-analysis, this type of therapy provides them with a safe, nurturing environment in which to do so. Group therapy is preferred in Transactional Analysis, in part because it allows a greater number of transactions, including more troubled transactions, than might ordinarily occur with an individual therapist relating primarily as an Adult(Prochaska, 2010). Regardless of the venue, providing clear rules about the session and what to expect will allow the client to feel safe to reveal themselves, thus allowing the opportunity for a trusting relationship with those involved in the therapeutic process. Patients are not the only potential game players in transactional analysis. Therapists using this method must be ever vigilant in enacting their own scripts at their clients’ expense(Prochaska, 2010). Self-awareness of the social work practitioner assists in eliminating this phenomena It would also be essential that the therapist seek strokes away outside of the workplace so as not to utilize the client in this manner. This is beneficial not only to the client/therapist relationship but to the basic premise behind the theory of Transactional Analysis. Major Contributions One of the major criticisms of the science or lack thereof behind psychotherapy is based on the fact that there is often no unit of measurement for study. Berne was able to create a measurable concept by defining the transaction of stroking, thus providing a measure that was able to give some credibility to this theory in the world of science. In the book Games People Play (1964 ), Berne defined transactions as a unit of social intercourse: â€Å"If two or more people encounter each other†¦sooner or later one of them will speak, or give some other indication of acknowledging the presence of the others. This is called transactional stimulus. Another person will then say or do something, which is in some way related to the stimulus, and that is called transactional response. â€Å"(Berne, 1964) Transactional Analysis is a versatile theory that can be used in group, couples, family, and individual therapy (Corey, 2008). This theory focuses on establishing intimacy and joy in interaction and communication, which is effective in creating positive outcomes for group and family members. By acknowledging ego states and the programming that has occurred, this can assist clients in becoming more self-aware and confident in their communication and interactions. It is through this realization that self-actualization can occur, thus providing a platform for success in changing behavior (Sills, 2007). Transactional analysis makes extensive use of the interpersonal interactions between therapist and client within sessions (Prochaska, 2010). This theory is still utilized currently still in therapy, there is a certification one can obtain in this theory that consists of training in the areas of psychotherapy, educational, organizational, and counseling arenas (The International Transactional Analysis Association, 1999). This movement continues today and has a worldwide list of members that both practice and belong to the International Transactional Analysis Association, thus supporting the idea that this is an effective theory that can be used in current practice. Ethical Issues/Consistency with social work values and ethics/Diverse Populations Transactional Analysis provides the foundation for self-determination (NASW, 2008). It recognizes client autonomy and the importance of allowing the client to guide their own decision making process (Corey, 2008). It embraces the ethics of preserving the value of human beings, equality (social justice), and self-responsibility(NASW, 2008). By observing the client’s interactions and behaviors (verbal and nonverbal), this honors the client as the expert and would require the therapist to have competence when working with various cultures. This would encourage and promote education on the differences of social constructionism when working with clients of diverse populations. The user-friendly nature of Transactional Analysis transcends cultural barriers, along with the educational approach to personal development (Corey, 2008). The idea of â€Å"life scripts† encompassed in this theory help to break through assumptions when it comes to our clients, whether it is with personality, culture, or other dramatic scripts that may include drug addiction or mental illness. These types of scripts, particularly those of cultural can affect whole populations in a harmful way. This violates our ethical principles of self-determination and by working through these situations using Transactional Analysis, it would serve to enhance the core values of social work. This type of theory is useful in working with women due to the use of contracts, equal relationships between client and practitioner, and empowerment of individuals (Corey, 2008). The feminist perspective is also celebrated by allowing the client to become empowered, and giving the opportunity to challenge the therapist’s ideas, allowing them to compare their reality with that of other women (Corey, 2008). Requisite skills for the practitioner Transactional Analysis would require a practitioner to have excellent observation skills and special training. The Berne Institute offers this training to those wishing to excel in the area of psychotherapy using the Transactional Analysis Techniques (The International Transactional Analysis Association, 1999). Practitioners would need to be familiar with the strengths perspective and have the ability to identify their own ego states. It would require maturity and the ability to recognize how their own external and internal experiences have affected them. By recognizing this it will allow the practitioner to remove biases and act in a professional manner when helping clients. The practitioner would need to be able to engage clients in a positive style and create rapport through the stroking method as proscribed through this theory (Berne D. E. , 2001). Strengths/Weaknesses of the theory Noted strengths of this theory are that it is positively focused and client centered. The client leads the sessions, and the identification of the ego states allows insight into the coping power of clients (Berne D. E. , 2001). Transactional analysis is a contractual and decisional model for change on the part of the client. It connects that mind and body, moving the transactional analysts to take a more holistic approach. These contracts may lead to new behaviors and give the client a sense of control. Therapy interventions are more likely to succeed and produce enduring change when involving the emotional and behavioral approaches (Corey, 2008). This theory would appear to be flexible and its concepts easily applied to individual, couples, families, groups, and community interventions. Also noted by Corey (2008) is that the concepts in this theory are congruent with a gender-sensitive approach to group work. Many clients are often unaware of how gender plays a role in their lives, this theory applied is helpful in realizing the role of importance it has and the effect is has on the client. It is often used in evaluating organizations, thus proving that it is a versatile theory with the ability to go from the micro to the macro in application (Clary, 1980). The emerging conclusions are that Transactional Analysis with adults has been proven more effective than no treatment, it roduces outcomes at best comparable to other forms of insight-oriented psychotherapy (Prochaska, 2010). Some notable limitations to the approach are that it has not been adequately subjected to empirical validation (Corey, 2008). Some of Berne’s concepts were stated in a manner that it would be impossible to design a research study to test them. Although there are measurable items in place (i. e. contract builds and supports accountability), the main determinate of success is based on feeling and observations (Corey, 2008). There is also the danger of losing the client to the jargon or structure of the theory- this structure can be used to avoid person-to-person interactions and focus on labeling ego states. Clients may be replacing old processes with new terms, and in doing so, preventing themselves from reaching self-actualization (Corey, 2008). Other Limitations with regards to Transactional Analysis are not openly apparent, with perhaps the exception of the cognitive aspects of reviewing the ego states (Berne D. E. , 2001). If a client is not mentally capable of identifying situations of learning and past experiences, or if they are limited in their capabilities for emotion, this may inhibit the effectiveness of this theory. Perhaps there may be a flaw in thinking that we can experience the past as it actually occurred, when in fact we are in the present. There needs to be some consideration as to how the present influences our thinking and assumptions. Based on where we are today, our morals, values, and experiences, it would be difficult not to be biased in some way when discussing our Child/Parent experiences and filtering it through the Adult ego state. 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